[36] However, he spared Warwick's elder sister Margaret, who survived until 1541 when she was executed by Henry VIII. From his victory over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth, to his secret death and the succession of his son Henry VIII, the film reveals the ruthless tactics . By 1600 historians emphasised Henry's wisdom in drawing lessons in statecraft from other monarchs. Henry was devastated. Thomas Penn's Winter King is not really a biography of Henry VII, and more a study of what he was directing his government to do in his name. [3] Henry's paternal grandfather, Owen Tudor, originally from the Tudors of Penmynydd, Isle of Anglesey in Wales, had been a page in the court of King Henry V. He rose to become one of the "Squires to the Body to the King" after military service at the Battle of Agincourt. The marriage did not take place during his lifetime. Henry VII, also called (1457-85) Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, (born January 28, 1457, Pembroke Castle, Pembrokeshire, Walesdied April 21, 1509, Richmond, Surrey, England), king of England (1485-1509), who succeeded in ending the Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York and founded the Tudor dynasty. There he claimed sanctuary until the envoys were forced to depart. [15], By 1483, Henry's mother was actively promoting him as an alternative to Richard III, despite her being married to Lord Stanley, a Yorkist. He rewrote history by backdating his reign to 21st August 1485, the day before the Battle of Bosworth Field. [68] In 1505 he was sufficiently interested in a potential marriage to Joanna of Naples that he sent ambassadors to Naples to report on the 27-year-old Joanna's physical suitability. Years of instability, factionalism and his predecessors' penchant for war had seen royal finances severely battered. [8], In 1456, Henry's father Edmund Tudor was captured while fighting for Henry VI in South Wales against the Yorkists. Henry VIII Books livestream YouTube 18 February 2023, February 13 A queen and her lady-in-waiting are beheaded. Henry VIII Books Exploring the Best Books on Englands Most Infamous King, 18 February 1516 The birth of Queen Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. But, his enemies didnt agree. [67], Henry made half-hearted plans to remarry and beget more heirs, but these never came to anything. There's a lot of cloak-and-dagger stuff here, something Henry and certain of his counselors seemed especially skilled at, and it was those parts that I particularly enjoyed. Philip died shortly after the negotiations. He spent most of the next 14 years under the protection of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. They were third cousins, as both were great-great-grandchildren of John of Gaunt. Bacon wanted the future Charles I to learn from Henry's reign, but the financial methods that would provoke fatal opposition to Charles look pale beside the exactions levied by Henry from often innocent subjects, who were denied legal process or threatened with trumped-up prosecutions and had to buy their freedom (though at moments of apparently impending death the king would repent of his methods and have the jails cleared and pardons issued). Henry VIII, (born June 28, 1491, Greenwich, near London, Englanddied January 28, 1547, London), king of England (1509-47) who presided over the beginnings of the English Renaissance and the English Reformation. [29] Henry secured his crown principally by dividing and undermining the power of the nobility, especially through the aggressive use of bonds and recognisances to secure loyalty. His regime was magnificent, yet terrifying and oppressive. I thought the book was well written, even though a bit dry is spots. [citation needed] Following the example of Edward IV, Henry VII created a Council of Wales and the Marches for his son Arthur, which was intended to govern Wales and the Marches, Cheshire and Cornwall. Happy St Davids Day! Penn's picture of a reign of terror carries disturbing echoes of the Roman historian Tacitus's account of the emperor Tiberius, another ruler whose abridgements of liberty followed an era of civil strife. In 1501, England had been ravaged for decades by conspiracy, coups . He paid very close attention to detail, and instead of spending lavishly he concentrated on raising new revenues. And yet this time removed was summer's time, The teeming autumn, big with rich increase, Bearing the wanton burden of the prime, Like widow'd wombs after their lords . Their main aim was money. How like a winter hath my absence been From thee, the pleasure of the fleeting year! The rest, as we say, is history; Richard III was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth and Henry Tudor had arrived out of nowhere and avenged the death of the little princes in the tower, although there is some debate as to who was actually responsible for their murder. Penn is not one to understate a case. Why was Henry VII called the Winter King? Here was a young man who enjoyed jousting, who enjoyed chatting with the other knights in the tiltyard and with people of low degree. [63] Despite this, Henry was keen to constrain their power and influence, applying the same principles to the justices of the peace as he did to the nobility: a similar system of bonds and recognisances to that which applied to both the gentry and the nobles who tried to exert their elevated influence over these local officials. Together, they had seven children. Elizabeth had died in childbirth, so Henry had the dispensation also permit him to marry Catherine himself. Through this, he found that his Lord Chamberlain, Sir William Stanley, was involved in the plot. He entertained thoughts of remarriage to renew the alliance with Spain Joanna, Dowager Queen of Naples (a niece of Queen Isabella of Castile), Queen Joanna of Castile, and Margaret, Dowager Duchess of Savoy (sister-in-law of Joanna of Castile), were all considered. A man who rewrote history and rebuilt the crown, but who was paranoid, manipulative and suspicious; a dark prince with a wintery reign. At any rate, the Wars of the Roses had ended with a victory by which the winner took all, and regardless of his somewhat dubious Plantagenet ancestry. Through luck, guile, and ruthlessness, Henry VII, the first of the Tudor kings, emerged as rulerbut as a fugitive with a flimsy claim to England's throne, he remained a usurper and false king to many, and his hold on power was precarious. I would read more by this author. Penn showed a genealogical roll that had belonged to the de la Pole family which showed Henry VI being the end of the Lancastrian line and the Yorkist line continuing on to Richard III. [34], When the King's agents searched the property of William Stanley (Chamberlain of the Household, with direct access to Henry VII) they found a bag of coins amounting to around 10,000 and a collar of livery with Yorkist garnishings. I have to admit to being a history geek. Hence, the king was plagued with conspiracies until nearly the end of his reign. In 1621 Francis Bacon's history of. A King from upstart usurper to renaissance monarch to Machiavellian schemer. England had been ravaged for decades by conspiracy, violence, murders, coups and countercoups. Henry responded to this threat by embedding spies into households. Alison Weir points out that the Rennes ceremony, two years earlier, was plausible only if Henry and his supporters were certain that the Princes were already dead. Corrections? With Elizabeth's death, the possibilities for such family indulgences greatly diminished. In many ways, it highlights that Henry VIII was a feckless inheritor of the tools of Machiavellian power, but had no idea to what productive end to put them. [citation needed], In 1506, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller Emery d'Amboise asked Henry VII to become the protector and patron of the Order, as he had an interest in the crusade. There he found more English fugitives, willing to invade England in support of Henry, and bearing news that Richard III had serious plans to marry the princess Elizabeth himself. Why was Henry VII called the Winter King? [13] When Warwick restored Henry VI in 1470, Jasper Tudor returned from exile and brought Henry to court. It is a sobering reflection for professional historians that the apparently unpromising territory of Henry's reign has recently produced two memorable books, both of them written outside their ranks: this one, and Ann Wroe's biography of the pretender, Perkin (2003), a longer work on a shorter subject. He had, Bacon added, much to be suspicious about, "his times" being "full of secret conspiracies and troubles". Then in 1491 appeared a still more serious menace: Perkin Warbeck, coached by Margaret to impersonate Richard, the younger son of Edward IV. of course, a large proportion of my opinion is probably due to the fact that i knew a lot about henry vii already, and Penn tried to create quite a thrilling/mysterious feel, which is all well and good if you don't already know how everything plays out. Why did the nobility accept the curtailment of the military power it had wielded in the wars of the roses and swallow the elevation of upstarts at Henry's court? By the way, dont forget that Ian Mortimers Time Travellers Guide to Elizabethan England is on tonight on BBC2 at 9pm. Shakespeare, drawn to the colour on either side of the reign, skipped it. Before Henry VIII, English kings were addressed as "Your Grace" or "Your Highness.". Some of them have more to say than Penn about the constructive sides of the reign, which developed the state-building methods of his Yorkist predecessors. It was 1501. Though outnumbered, Henry's Lancastrian forces decisively defeated Richard's Yorkist army at the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485. Henry's original head was cut out of the painting and replaced at some point after the work's creation. They were appointed for every shire and served for a year at a time. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. For instance, the Stanley family had control of Lancashire and Cheshire, upholding the peace on the condition that they stayed within the law. Thomas More hailed the end of "slavery" and the return of "liberty", "the end of sadness, the beginning of joy". After his victory at Bosworth Field, Henry married Edward IVs daughter Elizabeth of York. There are an awful lot of books written about the Tudor era, both fiction and non-fiction, so you have to ask whether this book adds anything new. Henry was building a myth, the idea that he and his family were the true royal blood of England. "[73] Further compounding Henry's distress, his older daughter Margaret had previously been betrothed to King James IV of Scotland and within months of her mother's death she had to be escorted to the border by her father: he would never see her again. Henry had only been accepted as King because the Princes in the Tower, the sons of Edward IV, were dead, so when Yorkist exiles groomed Perkin Warbeck to pose as one of the princes and raised an army it was a huge threat. [25][80], Historians have always compared Henry VII with his continental contemporaries, especially Louis XI of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon. His father, Henry VII, was a cold, calculating man (he wasn't called "the Winter King" for nothing), a greedy monarch who during his last years on the throne had squeezed every last drop. Henry VII: The Winter King. Both were survivors and as united in death as in life, as their tomb in Westminster Abbey illustrates. This is why he named the book the "Winter King". Penn then moved on to how Henry became King. Henry VII ruled from 1485-1509 and had a dubious claim on the throne, spending most of his time before the famous Battle of Bosworth Field in exile and gaining credibility from his marriage to Elizabeth of York. As his mother was only 14 when he was born and soon married again, Henry was brought up by his uncle Jasper Tudor, earl of Pembroke. Edmund was created Earl of Richmond in 1452, and "formally declared legitimate by Parliament". [47], Henry VII's policy was to maintain peace and to create economic prosperity. "King Henry VII" redirects here. Claiming to be Edward, earl of Warwick, the son of Richard IIIs elder brother, George, duke of Clarence, he had the formidable support of John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln, Richard IIIs heir designate, of many Irish chieftains, and of 2,000 German mercenaries paid for by Margaret of Burgundy. Henry VII is known for successfully ending the War of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York and for founding the Tudor dynasty. The reigns of his three predecessors were interrupted or foreshortened. Penn notes something else about the paeans on the son's accession: later in the Tudor period, apologists for the regime would remember Henry VII as the restorer of national peace and unity, but in 1509 it was the king's death, not his rule, that was held to have ended a long era of dark instability. Henry was the only child of Edmund Tudor , Earl of Richmond , and Margaret Beaufort . His account of Henry's government is more contentious than he lets on. Henry came to the throne following the death of his father, Henry VII. She was a great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (fourth son of Edward III), and his third wife Katherine Swynford. He passed laws against "livery" (the upper classes' flaunting of their adherents by giving them badges and emblems) and "maintenance" (the keeping of too many male "servants"). The father's government was an exercise in discoloration. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor. Updates? However, such a level of paranoia persisted that anyone (John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, for example)[27] with blood ties to the Plantagenets was suspected of coveting the throne. We know that Henry attended the wedding celebrations of Arthur and his bride . As we know, Henry VII was true to his word, married Elizabeth and they founded the Tudor dynasty between them. He spent his entire reign fixated on eliminating or disarming his enemies, and stabilizing England after the bloody, seemingly endless War of the Roses. In 1485 Henry landed at Milford Haven in Wales and advanced toward London. He was the first Tudor king after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in August 1485. More than a biography of Henry VII, this book is really a highly detailed history of the last ten years of his reign, and how he meticulously and ruthlessly turned England into a police state ruled by what amounted to an organized crime syndicate. (HIST003) Persecutions, Populations and Politics: Early Modern Britain 1550-1750, (HIST004) Country, Colonies and Culture: Early Modern Britain 1550-1750, (HIST006) The Stuart Court: History Politics and Culture, (HIST010) The Tudors: History, Culture and Religion, (HIST011) The English Country House: History, Architecture and Landscape, (HIST018) The Changing English Countryside, 20th Century Musicals: A Celebration of Song and Dance on the Silver Screen and the Stage. These bonds were enforced by the Council Learned in the Law, a council of legal advisers who were only answerable to the King. Wow, it was like being battered by facts without remission for good intentions. Many influential Yorkists had been dispossessed and disappointed by the change of regime, and there had been so many reversals of fortune within living memory that the decision of Bosworth did not appear necessarily final. Through luck, guile and ruthlessness, Henry VII, the first of the Tudor kings, had clambered to the top of the heap--a fugitive with a flimsy claim to England's throne. Having secured financial backing from Florentine bankers in London, Cabot was granted carefully phrased letters patent from Henry in March 1496, permitting him to embark on an exploratory voyage westerly. When Richard III became King, Henrys strategy, planned by Margaret Beaufort, the mother whom he had not seen for years, was to declare in public, in Brittanys Rennes Cathedral, that he would marry Edward IVs daughter Elizabeth, then in sanctuary with her mother, and thus bury the enmity between Lancaster and York by making her his queen. This family took a dim view of Henry and it was John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, who instigated the first rebellion against him. Henry IV had confirmed Richard IIs legitimation (1397) of the children of this union but had specifically excluded the Beauforts from any claim to the throne (1407). But Henry had a crucial asset: his queen and their children, the living embodiment of his hoped-for dynasty. The treaty marks a shift from neutrality over the French invasion of Brittany to active intervention against it. Several of Richard's key allies, such as Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, and also Lord Stanley and his brother William, crucially switched sides or left the battlefield. He was the last king of England to win . After Wolf Hall, I wanted to find out about Henry VII, the lesser-studied father of Henry VIII, who founded the Tudor Dynasty. Edward would have liked to rid himself of Henry, a rival to his throne, but Francis kept Henry safe. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Celebrating the release of The Colour of Bone A London Charnel House. Henry VII (28 January 1457 - 21 April 1509) was King of England from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death in 1509. For me, history is alive and energizing - not something static and remote. 1517. Reading this, I got a much better understanding of where Henry VIII came from, and why he was destined to be the colorful ruler he became, as an antidote to his own father. Castles of . The purpose of the agreement was to prevent France from annexing Brittany. Henry VII was born in Pembroke Castle , Wales, on January 28 th, 1457. So 4 stars. He likens the beginning of Henry VIII's reign to a metaphorical spring, a second coming of sorts because Henry VIII seemed to be the opposite of his father. The new prince was the embodiment of the red and white rose, he was the Tudor rose incarnate. [35] In 1499, Henry had the Earl of Warwick executed. He attained the throne when his forces, supported by France, Scotland, and Wales, defeated Edward IV's brother Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses. $14.97 1 Used from $14.96 3 New from $14.97. Henry VII can look a dull king, so dull that Thomas Penn's title omits his name. How did a precariously enthroned ruler, lacking a police force or a standing army, manage to run roughshod over the law? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Henry VII: The Winter King (95) 59min 2013 PG. Overspending by Henry VIII to pay for his lavish lifestyle and to fund foreign wars with France and Scotland are cited as . He died shortly afterwards in Carmarthen Castle. After the Holy Roman Emperor . He was probably baptised at St Mary's Church, Pembroke,[1] though no documentation of the event exists. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. [citation needed], In 1502, Henry VII's life took a difficult and personal turn in which many people he was close to died in quick succession. Elizabeth did get pregnant, but then went into premature labour. [64] This made Henry VII's second son, Henry, Duke of York, heir apparent to the throne. He created the Tudor dynasty. This was excellent. What are the differences between Henry VII and Henry VIII? Effectively an orphan, he had spent wretched years as a fugitive in Brittany. I picked this audiobook up because it was narrated by Simon Vance. It was propaganda to spread the message that he was the rightful King. Henry VII was the King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 to his death. If you missed the programme then here is the YouTube video for you enjoy! To strengthen his position, however, he subsidised shipbuilding, so strengthening the navy (he commissioned Europe's first ever and the world's oldest surviving dry dock at Portsmouth in 1495) and improving trading opportunities. The king's own death seven years later had to be kept secret until his nervous entourage had ensured the succession. He was the founder of the Tudor dynasty, and his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville brought together the too sides that were facing off during the Wars of the Roses (the Lancasters and the Yorks) basically uniting the two houses into a single family. Stanleys betrayal led to a complete security overhaul and his privy chamber going into lockdown. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Elizabeth of York was Queen consort of England as spouse of King Henry VII from 1486 until her death on February 11th, 1503. The Merchant Adventurers, the company which enjoyed the monopoly of the Flemish wool trade, relocated from Antwerp to Calais. 24th April 2023 - courses open for registrations. February 7 Sir Francis Bryan loses an eye and Henry VIII has a new love, An interview with historical novelist Sandra Byrd, Henry VIII and His Six Wives event open for registration. this was well-written and i love henry vii for how he managed to a) get the throne of england and b) keep it and make the crown so solvent after the devastating years of the Wars of the Roses, but i can't help but think that a lot of this was rather dry. This entire review has been hidden because of spoilers. [21], Henry devised a plan to seize the throne by engaging Richard quickly because Richard had reinforcements in Nottingham and Leicester. For example, they could replace suspect jurors in accordance with the 1495 act preventing the corruption of juries. With the assistance of the Italian merchant banker Lodovico della Fava and the Italian banker Girolamo Frescobaldi, Henry VII became deeply involved in the trade by licensing ships, obtaining alum from the Ottoman Empire, and selling it to the Low Countries and in England. ||Wordpress installation and design by http://www.MadeGlobal.com, FREE Anne Boleyn Philip had been shipwrecked on the English coast, and while Henry's guest, was bullied into an agreement so favourable to England at the expense of the Netherlands that it was dubbed the Malus Intercursus ("evil agreement"). Henry Tudor is a familiar name to students of English history, especially the military side of it. [12], Henry lived in the Herbert household until 1469, when Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (the "Kingmaker"), went over to the Lancastrians. Soon after his fathers burial on 10 May, Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine, leaving unresolved several issues concerning the papal dispensation and a missing part of the marriage portion. His supportive policy toward England's wool industry and his standoff with the Low Countries had long-lasting benefit to the English economy. Loyalty was ensured, and the nobility was effectively neuteredand Henry became the richest monarch in Europe. But Henry had a crucial asset: his queen and their children, the living embodiment of his hoped-for dynasty. I'm not giving this a star rating because I suspect it's me at fault not the book. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. In 1621 Francis Bacon's history of the reign called Henry "a dark prince, and infinitely suspicious". An ally of Henry's, Viscount Jean du Qulennec[fr], soon arrived, bringing news that Francis had recovered, and in the confusion Henry was able to flee to a monastery. Having seen it pop up in a lot of papers' Books of the Year lists, I think I was expecting something altogether more gripping and dramatic, but in the end I thought the story of Henry VII and the Tudor succession was just not an especially thrilling tale. Much of the ruthless machinery of control was designed to deal with ongoing challenged like pretenders and Yorkist sleepers and expats. [53] Later on, Henry had exchanged letters with Pope Julius II in 1507, in which he encouraged him to establish peace among Christian realms, and to organise an expedition against the Turks of the Ottoman Empire. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. His biographer, Professor Chrimes, credits him even before he had become king with "a high degree of personal magnetism, ability to inspire confidence, and a growing reputation for shrewd decisiveness". Henry gained the support of the Woodvilles, in-laws of the late Edward IV, and sailed with a small French and Scottish force, landing at Mill Bay near Dale, Pembrokeshire. The King was heavily guarded. Henry VII is actually a less familiar figure, despite being the same person. Fittingly he dressed in expensive black. The usual courts and justice system were totally circumvented, and there was no chance of appeal other than purchasing extremely high priced royal pardons. Henry VII was succeeded by his second son, Henry VIII. The devastated King became so ill that he was close to death, but then he recovered and Penn explains that when he took control once more, he was remorseless. Thomas Mores coronation poem for Henry VIII contrasted the new Kings reign with the dark days of the past. - and that was only about 50% of the book, it was only about 50% interesting to me. Supported at one time or another by France, by Maximilian I of Austria, regent of the Netherlands (Holy Roman emperor from 1493), by James IV of Scotland, and by powerful men in both Ireland and England, Perkin three times invaded England before he was captured at Beaulieu in Hampshire in 1497. I'm beginning to wonder if all of the kings beginning with the conquest weren't a little off their rocker in some way. On one side of the coin, instead of a profile of his face, there was a full length depiction of Henry sat on his throne with his crown and sceptre. [citation needed] Nonetheless, by 1483 Henry was the senior male Lancastrian claimant remaining after the deaths in battle, by murder or execution of Henry VI (son of Henry V and Catherine of Valois), his son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, and the other Beaufort line of descent through Lady Margaret's uncle, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset. On 7th August 1485, he dropped anchor at Mill Bay, Milford Haven, and when he reached the beach he prayed Judge me, O Lord, and favour my cause. The odds were stacked against him in his quest to take the throne of England. In other cases, he brought his over-powerful subjects to heel by decree. When Henry VII called his first parliament he used it as an opportunity to legitimise his reign. Henry VII was born on 28 January 1457 at Pembroke Castle, in the English-speaking portion of Pembrokeshire known as Little England beyond Wales. Its goals, relentlessly pursued until Henry's death in 1509, were the establishment of a royal house, the elimination of opposition, and the steady accumulation of power and wealth. (ROYAL HISTORY) Directors Stuart Elliott Genres Documentary, International Subtitles English [CC] Audio languages English. Henry VII, also called (145785) Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, (born January 28, 1457, Pembroke Castle, Pembrokeshire, Walesdied April 21, 1509, Richmond, Surrey, England), king of England (14851509), who succeeded in ending the Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York and founded the Tudor dynasty. The research was thorough and it was presented well and kept me engaged. Next month find out more on someone known as The Winter Queen! However, King Henry the VIII was much more self-centered as most of his spending was inappropriate and did not benefit England much. Amateur historians Bertram Fields and Sir Clements Markham have claimed that he may have been involved in the murder of the Princes in the Tower, as the repeal of Titulus Regius gave the Princes a stronger claim to the throne than his own. [33], In 1490, a young Fleming, Perkin Warbeck, appeared and claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury, the younger of the "Princes in the Tower". His father was the son of Owen Tudor, a Welsh squire, and Catherine of France, the widow of King Henry V. His mother was the great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, whose children by Catherine Swynford were born before he married her. Author of, Assistant Master and Professor of History, Selwyn College, University of Cambridge. Henry needed an heir to secure his reign and fortunately an heir came quickly. Henry VII, also called (145785) Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, (born January 28, 1457, Pembroke Castle, Pembrokeshire, Walesdied April 21, 1509, Richmond, Surrey, England), king of England (14851509), who succeeded in ending the Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York and founded the Tudor dynasty . Richard III's death at Bosworth Field effectively ended the Wars of the Roses. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. He stabilised the government's finances by introducing several new taxes. [81], Henry VII and Elizabeth had seven children:[b]. The significant role played by bitcoin for businesses! [59][60][61], He was content to allow the nobles their regional influence if they were loyal to him. Henry VII died on 21 April 1509, and the 17-year-old Henry succeeded him as king. The house of York then appeared so firmly established that Henry seemed likely to remain in exile for the rest of his life. Nepesta Valley Stockyards Market Report, How To Make Colored Exhaust Smoke For Gender Reveal, Paternity Court Conception Calculator, Articles W